Strategic Planning in the Australian Coffee market

Strategic Planning in the Australian Coffee market Industry/Market definition The Australian Coffee Industry comprises all the firms that offer products for sale that are derived from coffee beans. There are pure coffee products, ie whole and ground coffee beans, and instant coffee products. Each kind of product has its own target market. A market is the set of all actual and potential buyers of a product (Kotler et al 1998, p885). The pure coffee market consists of all the actual and potential buyers of whole or ground coffee beans. The instant coffee market consists of all the actual and potential buyers of instant coffee. For the purposes of this assignment, I will focus on the instant coffee market in Australia. Part1 Macroenvironment The marketing environment within which a company operates is dynamic. Its consists of a microenvironment, and a macroenvironment. The microenvironment is the forces close to the company that affect its ability to serve its customers. The macroenvironment is the larger societal forces that affect the whole microenvironment, (Kotler et al 1998, pp885-886) The macroenvironment consists of six types of forces: demographic, economic, natural, technological, political and cultural forces. A companys marketing strategy must take into account changes and trends in these environments that can present opportunities or pose threats. A successful firm is one that regularly modifies it marketing mix and strategies to adapt to these changes (Czinkota et al 2000, p17). Below I will outline the six macroenvironmental forces, and how they may affect the instant coffee market in Australia. Demographic environment Demographics are the study of human populations in terms of size, density, location, age, sex, race, occupations and other statistics (Kotler et al 1998, p105). The demographic environment consists of all the aforementioned demographic variables, and their ability to affect the Australian instant coffee market. The importance of the demographic environment lies in the fact that all demand for a product derives ultimately from people (Cannon 1998, p41). Kotler et al (1998, p113) noted that demographic developments have transformed the Australian marketplace from a mass market into more fragmented micro-markets differentiated by age, sex, geography, lifestyle, ethic background, education and other factors. Recent demographic trends in Australia are a better-educated and more white-collar population, increasing ethnic diversity, and changing age structures. The implications of such changes are that organisations must now design products and marketing programs for the specific micro-markets they wish to target. While all demographic variables have the potential to affect the instant coffee market in Australia, the area of particular significance is the emergence of ethnic micro-markets. Ethnic communities now make up a significant and growing part of the Australian population, who have clear product and brand preferences (Bradmore et al 1997, p88). Thus, there is now demand for a wider variety of coffee styles to suit ethnic tastes, which requires the development of new products and marketing strategies. For example, since ninety-five percent of all coffee drunk by Italians is espresso, (Barton 2000), many companies have developed instant espresso products. Economic environment The economic environment consists of the factors that affect consumer buying power and spending patterns (Kotler et al 1998, p113). Factor include income and employment levels, inflation levels, savings and credit conditions, the value of the Australian dollar and so on. This aspect of the macroenvironment is important to the Australian instant coffee market, as it is to any market, because consumers must have the purchasing power to back up their desire for the products. However, since non-price factors, such as branding, are a significant basis for competition for coffee products (IBIS World 2000, p8), changes in retail coffee prices will not have a huge effect on the market share of any one manufacturer. Despite that, economic factors that do affect the Australian coffee market include the value of the Australian dollar. Virtually all coffee beans are imported, and their prices vary with changes in the relative exchange rates (IBIS World 2000, p15). A low value of the Australian dollar, as is the present case, drives up input prices for manufacturers, which may be passed onto consumers. Furthermore, the Association of Coffee Producing Countries, which accounts for three quarters of world coffee-bean production, has announced plans to restrict the output of beans, which would mean it could control prices (Crawford 2000, p1). The effect of this possible price control is not yet known, but it could drive smaller manufacturers out of the market if the price increases are too high. Also, another issue is the level of disposable income of Australians. With an increase in income, consumers are increasingly likely to purchase higher quality products rather than to simply purchase more. Thus there is a growing market for higher quality and priced instant coffee. As noted in the IBIS World Report for C2179 Food Manufacturing, higher income facilitated the successful introduction of specialtycoffee products. (IBIS World 2000, p7). The GST is not applicable to coffee products, but GST on pure coffee products served at commercial premises could increase the market potential for instant coffee. Natural environment The natural environment concerns the natural resources that are needed as inputs by marketers or that are affected by marketing activities (Kotler et al 1998, p116). Today, there is a growing awareness of the need to preserve our planet, and that includes the need to protect our natural environment from the potentially harmful affects of industrial activities. Since coffee producers make use of the natural environment, there is a potential for this aspect of the macroenvironment to be quite significant to the Australian coffee industry. Consumers, more than ever, are beginning to boycott products that have been manufactured in such a way as to damage the environment. This is putting pressure on manufactures to ensure all procedures are environmentally friendly, or risk losing market share. Such issues that involve coffee manufacturing are the use of pesticides and chemicals, pollution from manufacturing plants, excessive water use in the production stage, and the effect of farming the land in regard to future erosion and depletion of natural minerals. Also, the supply and price of coffee beans to the Australian Coffee market is at the mercy of the natural elements. The IBIS World (2000, p27) Industry Report stated that coffee bean prices are forecast to increase sharply(as)the result of poor seasonal conditions in Central America and low stocks. Technological environment The technological environment is the forces that affect new technologies, creating new product and market opportunities (Kotler et al 1998, p889). Since coffee was discovered in around 1000AD (Nescafà © 2000), the methods used to grow, harvest, process and manufacture coffee products has certainly evolved. The use of irrigation systems, fertilisers, machinery in the harvest process, and the introduction of automated, computer controlled equipment (in Australian processing plants) has raised efficiency and, in many cases, has also improved product quality (IBIS World 2000, p25). However, the most recent influential forces concern advances in manufacturing processes, and developments of new coffee machines for home use. New technologies had made it possible for Australian instant coffee manufacturers to produce a wider range of products, of higher quality. For example, Nescafà © have recently introduced a new instant Cafà © Latte range, and also new instant Espresso. Also, using freeze-dried technology, instant coffee has a significantly longer shelf life than any product in the pure coffee market, which is a significant advantage. However, over the past few decades, the development of inexpensive coffee perculators and plungers has increased the attractiveness of pure coffee products, often at the expense of the instant coffee market. For example, Melitta House of Coffee recently introduced a coffee maker that makes 10-15 cups of coffee as quickly as boiling a jug. Lastly, the advent Internet shopping is allowing consumers to make purchases on-line, and from foreign suppliers, thus posing a threat to the size and profitability of the Australian coffee market. Political environment The political environment consists of the laws, government agencies and pressure groups that influence and limit various organisations and individuals in the society (Kotler et al 1998, p887). Like in all markets, organisations that operate in the Australian instant coffee market are subject to laws that regulate virtually all aspects of their business, including such areas as food and health safety, pollution emissions, and advertising and labelling requirements. However, the political environment does not have large impact on the Australian coffee market. Cultural environment The cultural environment consists of the institutions and forces that affect societys basic values, perceptions and behaviours (Kotler et al 1998, p882). Changes in Australian culture, and the emergence of varied sub-cultures can have a large impact on the instant coffee market in Australia. As Hugh Mackay, chairman of Mackay Research Pty Ltd stated: Anyone who is serious about communicating with contemporary Australiansneeds to understand the most contemporary trends in attitudes and behaviour. (Bradmore et al 1997, p62) Recent trends in Australia that are having a particular affect on the instant coffee market are the redefinition of health and associated anxieties about diet, fitness and stress, and the recent emergence of a young Australian coffee culture. Australians are, more than ever, concerned about their health. There is a wealth of research linking caffeine to many ailments, and thus, this is increasing demand for the healthy alternative decaffeinated products. There is also the threat the consumers could boycott coffee products all together, and switch to another beverage, such as tea, which is well known for its positive health benefits. In addition, the market for all types of coffee is benefiting from an era of coffee in AustraliaA real coffee culture is growing. (Miller 2000, p3) People are not only drinking more coffee, but becoming coffee connoisseurs. Coffee is no longer just a product, but a means of self-expression. As a society we are placing the emphasis on quality, not quantity, and as such consumers are buying more exotic instant coffees (Bannister 2000, p17). There has also been an emergence of many different subcultures. A subculture is a group of people with shared value systems based on common life experiences or situations (Kotler et al 1998, p123). Today, there is wide range of subcultures, particularly those based on nationalities, which is leading to demand for a wider variety of products. Part2 The marketing mix: How it is used by two companies to target the australian instant coffee market. There are many organisations that operate within the instant coffee market in Australia. Each company positions themselves with a unique marketing mix that is aimed at specific segments of the market. Kotler et al (1998, p57) defines the marketing mix as the set of controllable marketing variables that the company blends to produce the response it wants in the target market. The variables of the marketing mix are the four Ps: Product: the goods-and-service combination the company offers to the target market (Kotler et al 1998, p57). Price: the amount of money customers have to pay to obtain the product (Kotler et al 1998, p58). Place (Distribution): involves company logistics and marketing activities concerned with the making and distributing the final product (Kotler et al 1998, p58). Promotion: the activities that communicate the merits of the product and persuade the target customers to buy it (Kotler et al 1998, p58). This includes advertising, publicity, sales promotions, personal selling, direct marketing and sponsorship. I will focus on the marketing mix of Nescafà © and of Robert Timms. Nescafà © Nescafe products are produced by Nestle. Necafe holds a vary large share of the instant coffee market in Australia. Marketing mix outline Product There is a range of Nescafà © products available (see Table 1 below). Price The prices of the Nescafà © products have been listed in Table1: Nescafà © products and price. Place (Distribution) The Nescafà © product range is available in all large supermarket chains (Safeway, Coles etc). Smaller, independent grocers or stockists generally have a smaller range that would include Nescafà © Blend 43. Promotion a variety of promotional techniques. This includes: Large scale advertising They advertise their products in a wide variety of print, broadcast and display media. Their most recent nation wide advertising campaigns were the Open up with Nescafà © series, and the Nescafà © in the morning series. Sales promotions Nescafà © regularly runs contests that coincide with new product launches or advertising campaigns. Recent promotions were * win $1000 every morning for a month * Win the Nescafà © Latte Lounge to promote the new latte range Nescafà © also use point of sale promotions, have cash-back offers, and have give-aways. Eg. a free Nescafà © mug was given away with every purchase of 500g of Blend 43. The mug was the same type as that used in the Nescafà © in the morning advertisement series. Sponsorship: Nescafà © sponsors the * Nescafà © Big Break competition which will give away $180,000 to young people (aged 16-21) with original and achievable ideas. * Nescafà © Short Film Awards which offers a total of A$50,000 in cash awards to short film makers. There is a student category in this competition. Nescafà © also has an Australian website (www.cafe43.com.au) where information on all products, competitions and events can be accessed. Marketing mix analysis Nescafà ©s marketing mix is aimed at a large and varied segment of the instant coffee market. They could be considered the Myer of the instant coffee industry. The most obvious segments of the market they target are: * Young adult cafà © culture segment: They target this segment with their new latte range, along with the advertising, sales promotion and the competition to win the lounge seen in the advertisements. * Upscale, quality driven, higher income consumers: Their Nescafà © Gold range, and exotic tastes such as Alta Rice are aimed towards such consumers, where the price and qaulity are higher than that of the general blends. * Middle-class consumer (no age target): Nescafà © targets such a large segment with their Blend 43, Mild Roast and Espresso products. The consumer gets an economical benefit, as well as a quality product. Furthermore, Nescafà © attempts to tap into the ethnic segment using their Espresso and exotic blends. In their advertisements for espresso, they use local Italian actor, Nick Giannopoulos. In general, since Nescafà © has the largest range of instant coffee products in Australia, and has such a powerful brand name, they have a consumer franchise they gain brand recognition and demand consumer loyalty. In particular, their most popular product, Nescafà © Blend 43, is seen as the peoples coffee. In their advertisements, they use actors of varied age, gender, occupations and ethnicity. Robert Timms: Robert Timms is Australias oldest coffee company. It is the leader in the coffee bean market (Bannister 2000, p17), and has only entered the instant coffee market over the last couple of years. Marketing mix outline Product Robert Timms offers coffee bags (which work in the same manner as a tea bag) in four styles: Cafà © Style Espresso Italian Style Espresso Mocha Kenya Style Royal Special The coffee bags are a mix of ground and instant coffee. They also have: * Presmoto: Gourmet Freeze Dried Coffee. * Molto: Gourmet Granulated Coffee Price Robert Timms coffee bags are sold in: * packs of 8 for $2.35, or * packs of 18 for $4.83 I was not able to find the price of Presmoto and Molto soluble coffee as I could not find an outlet that stocks it. Place Robert Timms coffee bags are available in all large supermarket chains, but sporadically in independent stores. I am not aware of where the gourmet soluble coffee can be purchased. It was not available in any large supermarket I have visited. Promotion Robert Timms has only begun extensive promotion since early 2000, after remaining relatively low in profile. They do not promote the coffee bags or gourmet instant coffee specifically, but rather they promote the brand name. Promotional tools used by Robert Timms are: Large scale advertising Robert Timms most recent nation wide advertising campaign was the Think it over with Robert Timms series, which is seen on broadcast, print and display media. Sponsorship Robert Timms is the official coffee supplier to the 2000 Olympic Games. Robert Timms also has a web site (www.reoberttimms.com). It mainly has information on the history of the company and it products. Marketing mix analysis Robert Timms positions itself in the instant coffee market as a provider of the very highest quality coffee products. The company prides itself on its heritage. As it states on its web-site: We are a dedicated group of Australians producing coffee, coffee related products and services that are comparable to the very best in the world. http://www.roberttimms.com/about/index.html Opens in a new window The company has targeted its instant coffee products to the high income, quality driven segment of the instant coffee market. The quality of their products is reflected in the prices, which are expensive, and the packaging, which uses the stylish combination of black and gold. Furthermore, through their role as official coffee supplier to the Olympics, they are also associating themselves with the pursuit of excellence and the Australian spirit. Their promotional campaign Think it Overwith Robert Timmsà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ creates a relaxed, yet sophisticated feel about the company and their products. The premise behind the campaign is best summed up on their web-site: Take some time out of your busy day to enjoy our coffee and you too can Think it Overwith Robert Timmsà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ Reflect on the day, make the right decision at work or just decide to relax. Its up to you. http://www.roberttimms.com/think_it_over/index.html Opens in a new window Thus, while their marketing mix is targeted at high-income consumers who want high quality, they made sure they did not exclude a large share of the market by appearing overly elitist. Nescafà © vs. Robert Timms The marketing mix of Nescafà © and the marketing mix of Robert Timms are quite different. These differences reflect the different positioning of the two companies, and the segments of the market they were aiming to capture. Whereas Nescafe has targeted a larger percentage of the market, with quality but affordable products, Robert Timms has targeted a narrower segment with gourmet, expensive products. Generally, Robert Timms and Nescafà © are no real direct threat to each other. While they do both compete in the high quality, gourmet end of the instant coffee market, Robert Timms is clearly the highest quality product, and consumers must pay for this. What Nescafà © is offering is a more affordable alternative. Conclusion The instant coffee market in Australia is subject to the demographic, economic, political, cultural, natural and technological forces of the wider macroenvironment that it operates within. Each of these forces has the potential to change the marketing environment, and create opportunities and pose threats to the market and those who operate within it. What companies must do is monitor these environments to adapt its marketing mix accordingly. In the Australian instant coffee market, different companies have quite different marketing mixes, as can be seen when comparing Nescafà © and Robert Timms. These differences do not mean that one is more effective than the other, but rather they reflect the different marketing strategies adopted by each company to capture the market segments they feel the company can best serve.

The Grand Inquisitor Poem Theology Religion Essay

The Grand Inquisitor Poem Theology Religion Essay The Grand Inquisitor is part of the stories found in the book by Fyodor Dostoevsky entitled Brothers Karamozov. Dostoevsky concerns himself in analyzing the psychological consequences of engaging in crime, and the moral consequences of engaging in such kind of vices. In the grand Inquisitor, the characters question the validity of religion, free will and morality. The main dilemma that these characters ask, is it prudent for man, to observe the laws of religion? The other questions that linger on the minds of these people is whether they should take the role of God, and ignore the various religious believes or traditions. The poet identifies the various degrees of freedom, and this includes positive and negative freedom, rational egoism, Christian idealism, and nihism. He does this through the various characters in his poem the Grand Inquisitor (Dostoyevsky,, Richard and Larrisa, 27). The Grand Inquisitor is based on the idea of freedom and human nature. In the poem, Alysha is a monk, and Ivan questions the benevolence of God. According to the Grand Inquisitor, the notion of freedom does not exist. The Grand Inquisitor observes that people need to be selfish, and by doing that the whole society will benefit. This is because the needs of individuals are the same and complement each other. On this basis, the freedom the Jesus Christ brings to the world is not freedom but slavery. This aspect is denoted in the poem when the Grand Inquisitor tells Jesus that by coming again, he is destroying the church. He further tells Jesus that the devil tempted him with three items, food, power, and divine authority (Dostoyevsky and Constance, 33). For instance, the devil told Jesus to turn stone into bread. According to the Grand Inquisitor, Jesus should have done that. According to him, men will only follow people who feed their bellies. By turning stone into bread, Jesus will demonstrate his ability to feed the multitudes. The Grand Inquisitor further tells Jesus that he should have cast himself down from the temple and caught by angels. This would have demonstrated his godhead abilities, therefore acquiring worship and trust from the people. Finally, the Grand Inquisitor believes that had Jesus accepted to rule over the world, then the world would have seen salvation (Leatherbarrow, 24). On this basis, the Grand Inquisitor accuses Jesus of giving humanity freedom to choose. According to him, the masses do not have the capability of choosing what is right or wrong. This freedom has led to the destruction of mankind. The Grand Inquisitor therefore believes that the freedom that Jesus gave to mankind, by refusing to oblige to the temptations of the devil, was too much for the people. On this basis therefore, the Grand Inquisitor advocates for selfishness of an individual. However, this freedom that comes with selfishness is an illusion, and does not exist in Christianity. The Christian teachings advocate for love, and humanity. For instance, the Inquisitor believes in giving people bread, in exchange of their souls. According to this teaching, the freedom of people will only come through coercion. On this basis, the Grand Inquisitor takes the role of God, instead of man. In my own opinion, the kind of freedom that the Grand Inquisitor advocates for is the negative freedom. The Inquisitor tries to justify his believes by identifying the roles of Satan in providing real freedom. He does this by denoting that the catholic church long left the teachings of Jesus, and followed the teachings of Satan. In his own opinion, freedom that comes from the devil is sufficient in taking care of the needs of humanity. This is because the devil gives authority to the few, who have the capability of handling their freedom. By doing, the devil manages to end the suffering of humanity, and uniting the world, through the church, i.e. the Catholic Church (Crane and Faynia, 19). No matter what justification the Grand Inquisitor gives, this is negative freedom. This is because it is against humanity to act in a selfish manner. For people to stay together, they must satisfy the various needs of others. There is no way leadership by a few people and through coercion can result to the promotion of humanity, and hence positive freedom. This is because people will always be dissatisfied by the selfishness of individuals, resulting to rebellions. Dostoevsky presents the freedom denoted as Christian idealism through the actions of Jesus Christ. For instance, the Grand Inquisitor accuses Jesus of allowing people to choose on what they want and what they donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t want (Davis, Gary, David, John, 28). For instance, the Grand Inquisitor argues that by refusing to accept the temptations that the devil offered to Jesus Christ, he gave mankind the freedom to choose. This is what Christian idealism is all about. To Christians, they have a role to play in their lives, in regard to worshiping God. They can choose either choose to worship God, and achieve eternal life, or to go against God, and be lead to eternal death (Dostoyevsky, 33). The Grand Inquisitor acknowledges these teachings, and he tell Jesus that even though the devil is leading them to death and destruction, the freedom that he gives is for the benefit of humanity. This kind of freedom is the elimination of the free will of individuals, in exchange of providing for their needs, and happiness. In conclusion, Dostoevsky manages to highlight religious bondage in the manner in which the Grand Inquisitor argues about the freedom. The Grand Inquisitor is under religious bondage because of his assumptions that freedom to choose is limited to a few individual. In reality, this is not freedom but bondage. This is because an individual will not have the capability of acting by himself. The person will always live in fear of need, because the authority will fail to provide for her due to disobedience. On this basis, the notion of harmony does not exist; instead individuals are under spiritual bondage, in the name of self-gratification, and self-love.

Virtual Child Pornography Should be Legal :: Argumentative Persuasive Argument Essays

Virtual Child Pornography Should be Legal This nation has several issues over which most people's minds freeze up, with the disastrous drug war probably leading the list. I don't share a feeling of squeamishness and horror when it comes to drugs: What I don't want, I don't take, it's that simple. And I don't spend time fretting that my neighbors might be toking, or snorting, in the privacy of their homes. Child pornography is something else; it pushes all kinds of emotional hot-buttons in me. Certainly I would agree with the majority that anyone who exploits children in a sexual manner is committing a serious offense, deserving of harsh punishment. And anyone who get his kicks looking at images of children in sexual situations, well, that's also pretty horrifying to my sensibilities. I am very glad that my own lust meter pegs when I look at fully grown women, not at some other subset of the population. Nevertheless, I feel moved to speak against the wave of hysteria that is exemplified by U.S. Rep. Henry Brown's call for a Constitutional amendment to ban virtual child pornography. (Virtual child pornography is images that appear to be of children having sex, but which are in fact made-up, simulated by the miracles of modern computer graphics). Some who oppose such an amendment do so on the basis that the Constitution is not meant to cover specific legislative issues. That is true, but it misses the larger point, which comes down to basic rights, even for people we think have horrifying tastes. To put it bluntly, children (and adults too, of course) have the right not to be sexually exploited, BUT, adults have the right to possess any material which does not directly exploit children. Yes, including virtual pornography. I think a strong case could be made that it should not be illegal for someone to possess images of ACTUAL child pornography: The crime has been committed by the person exploiting the children, not the person viewing the picture. Nevertheless, in this column I'm taking the less assertive position that only pretend pictures of children don't warrant legal sanction. Think about this: Take a napkin. Draw a big guy with an erect c***. Draw a much smaller figure giving him a b*** j**. You have just committed a felony. Take that napkin and stuff it in someone else's pocket.

Business :: essays research papers

Businessman. Before World War I, Truman had lost money in mining and oil investments. In 1919, he and his friend Eddie Jacobson invested their savings in a men's clothing store in Kansas City. They worked hard, keeping the store open from 8 a.m. to 9 p.m., but the business failed during the severe recession that began in 1921. Truman worked about 15 years to pay the store debts. Political career Discouraged by the failure of the store, Truman decided to seek a career in politics. He received help from "Big Tom" Pendergast, the Democratic Party boss of Kansas City. Pendergast's nephew had known and admired Truman in the Army. Pendergast led one of the strongest political machines in the United States. He decided that Truman could win votes because of his farm background, his war record, and his friendly personality. County judge. Pendergast supported Truman in his campaign for election as county judge of Jackson County. This post in Missouri resembled that of county commissioner in other states. Truman won the election, and served from 1922 to 1924. He lost the 1924 election because of a split in local Democratic forces. Truman attended the Kansas City School of Law during the mid-1920's, but did not obtain a degree. He served as presiding county judge from 1926 to 1934. The Pendergast machine was notoriously dishonest, but Truman won a reputation for honesty and efficiency. He supervised new projects financed by $14 million in tax funds and bond issues. U.S. senator. In 1934, again with Pendergast's support, Truman was elected to the United States Senate. As a member of the Senate Interstate Commerce Committee, Truman directed an investigation of railroad finances. His staff found damaging evidence about many of Truman's friends in Missouri, but he ordered the investigation completed. A major result was the Transportation Act of 1940, which regulated railroad financing. Also during this time, a government study of the Pendergast political machine disclosed vote frauds and shady financial dealings. Pendergast pleaded guilty to income tax evasion, and he and many of his followers were sent to prison. The scandals did not touch Truman, but he refused to disclaim Pendergast. In 1940, Truman won reelection to the Senate. The Truman Committee. In 1940, although the United States was not formally involved in World War II, the nation's defense spending rose to huge sums. Truman realized that the defense effort created many opportunities for waste and corruption.

Agriculture in the Caribbean

TABLE OF CONTENTS ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN THE CARIBBEAN Foreign exchange Contribution to GDP/GNP Food security Employment Environmental management CONSTRAINTS AFFECTING CARIBBEAN AGRICULTURE Climate Topography Appropriate Technology Rural Infrastructure Land Tenure and Fragmentation Credit Facilities Marketing Facilities Extension Services Praedial Larceny CLASSIFICATION OF CARIBBEAN FARMS Distinguishing Features of Farmers (According to Size) Large Farms Medium Sized Farms Small Farms Distinguishing Features of Farms (According to Produce) Crops Farm Livestock Monoculture/Mono-cropping Mixed Cropping Mixed Farming Organic Farming Agro-Forestry Integrated Farm INSTITUTIONS WHICH SUPPORT LOCAL AND REGIONAL AGRICULTURAL Rural Agricultural Development Authority (RADA) Bodles Research Station: Jamaica Livestoc Association (J. L. A. ) Jamaica Agricultural Society (J. A. S. ): Scientific Research Council (SRC Sugar Industry Research Institute (SIRI) Caribbean Community Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI ) Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute (CFNI) University of the West Indies (UWI) College of Agriculture, Science and Education (CASE) Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture (IICA) Food and Agriculture Organization (F AO) Organization of American States (OAS) Inter-American Development Bank (I. D. B. ) The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) Caribbean Basin Initiative (C. B. I) United States Agency for International Development (USAID) European Union (EU) INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SCIENCE Functions of Soil in our Environment Soil Formation Weathering Soil formation factors Soil Profile Physical Properties of soils Soil texture Soil Structure Porosity BULK DENSITY SOIL COLOUR SOIL WATER Importance of soil Organic Matter Chemical Properties of the soil Soil pH Plant nutrients HOW THE SOIL HOLD PLANT NUTRIENTS? MANAGING SOIL FERTILITY FERTILIZERS Advantages of organic fertilizers Disadvantages of organic fertilizers Inorganic fertilizers Fertilizer grade Advantages of inorganic fertilizers Disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers Practical activity Identifying types of fertilizers Methods of applying fertilizer Importance of plant sexual reproduction in agriculture The flower Pollination Types of pollinations Self pollination Cross pollination Fertilizatio ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN THE CARIBBEAN Foreign exchange The agriculture sector earns foreign exchange by exporting traditional and non-traditional products. In addition to earning foreign exchange, the agriculture sector may also produce food and raw material for local consumption; this reduces the need to import similar products, resulting in the saving of foreign exchange. The foreign exchange earned and saved is used to purchase other goods and services which the country needs/want but does not produce. Imported products must be purchased using foreign exchange. In addition to trading, foreign exchange is also used to repay international debt. Contribution to GDP/GNP GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT – GDP GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT – GNP GDP and GNP are means of measuring the national income of a country. The GDP measures the value of goods and services produced locally, in a given period. The GNP is determined by adding the value of goods and services produced in a country (GDP) and also what is earned abroad and returned to the country, in a given period. GDP = AGRICULTURE + TOURISM + MINING + MANUFACTURING etc. GNP = AGRICULTURE + TOURISM + MINING + MANUFACTURING etc. + EARNINGS FROM ABROAD Agriculture contributes to the overall wealth of a country by contributing to GNP and GDP. As the contribution from agriculture and other sectors increases the wealthier the country becomes. This means more funding will be available to improve infrastructure and services such as roads, education and health. The Jamaican agriculture sector contributes about seven percent to GDP, only tourism contributes more. Food security Food security is concerned with the availability of adequate supply of food and access to the food by all the citizens of a country. Food security exists when all people at all times have physical and economic access to ufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences. Food security can be affected by; †¢ Availability or access to arable lands for agriculture †¢ Technology used †¢ Climatic conditions †¢ Conflicts †¢ Ability to import food †¢ Poverty FOOD SECURITY = ADEQUATE FOOD SUPPLY + ACCESS TO FOO D BY ALL Employment Agriculture is a major source of employment in the rural areas of most Caribbean countries. Therefore, agriculture is the primary means of promoting rural development and reducing rural to urban migration and its consequence urban decay. Employment in agriculture ranges from unskilled workers to highly trained professionals such as an agronomist or an agricultural engineer. Also, agriculture offers direct employment for example a broiler farm [pic] or an extension officer. There is also indirect employment in down streams. Down streams industries, such as food processing, generally use agricultural products as raw materials to produce value added products or manufacture new products. Supermarkets, financial institutions and businesses benefit from the earnings of individuals involved in agriculture. Environmental management Through agricultural activities man interacts with the environment. The effects of this interaction may be positive or negative. Since agriculture depends on the natural resources, the goal of all persons who benefit directly and in directly from agriculture should be to promote the use of agricultural practices that are environmentally friendly. CONSTRAINTS AFFECTING CARIBBEAN AGRICULTURE Climate The major areas of consideration are: temperature and rainfall. The climate of the Caribbean is the tropical marine climate; therefore it is warm and moist. The combination of warmth and moisture create ideal conditions for many pests and diseases that affect both crops and livestock. Also, the high temperatures make it more difficult to successfully rear some breeds of livestock in the Caribbean, especially those which originate in temperate areas such as Europe. Topography Topography refers to the relief or the shape of the land. The topography of most Caribbean islands is hilly in the interior with most of the flat land near the coast. The limited flat land is generally used for housing and settlements, manufacturing industries and plantation type agriculture e. g. sugar cane. Steep slopes affect farming by: †¢ Limiting access to farm plots †¢ Restrict the use of farm machines †¢ Increase the risk of soil erosion Appropriate Technology Technology: the use of tools, machinery and knowledge and to complete tasks. Increasing production in agriculture is linked to the use of modern technology e. g. tractors, hybrid seeds, and efficient irrigation systems. Appropriate technology refers to the use of tools, machinery and knowledge which is suited for local conditions or a specific area or condition. Technology should be appropriate to the economic status of the farmer, farm size, climate and level of education etc. Appropriateness technology for small farmers can be judged using the characteristics shown below; †¢ Simple †¢ Low maintenance †¢ Locally made †¢ Access to spare parts †¢ Easy to operate †¢ Affordable †¢ Small/compact [pic] [pic] Rural Infrastructure The farm family needs to have access to basic amenities for both agricultural and domestic activities. If rural areas are not provided with some of the basic infrastructural needs, farmers will not be very productive; also the business of farming may become less attractive or no longer feasible to the farm family. Some of the basic infrastructure includes: †¢ Electricity Water supply †¢ Proper roads †¢ Telephone †¢ Health care †¢ Schools Land Tenure and Fragmentation Land tenure speaks to the ownership of land. Most small farmers do not own their own land or own very small fragmented plots usually in hilly areas. When farmers do not own their own land, they are not motivated to develop the land or put permanent structures on the land. Land fragmentation occurs as land is divided among family members from generation to generation. The land is divided into numerous plots and not all the plots are generally used for agricultural production but for other purposed such as housing. Credit Facilities As with other types of businesses it is often very necessary to borrow money from lending institutions to start, expand or acquire assts for an agricultural enterprise. Because farming is considered to be a high risk business, institutions are not very willing to lend money for agriculture. Very often farmers complain that the cost of borrowing money (interest rate) is too high; while the price of the products they produce is relatively low. Some farmers will experience difficulty accessing loans because they lack suitable collateral such as land. Collateral is material of value used to cover the cost of the loan in the even that the borrower is unable to pay. Marketing Facilities Marketing involves bringing the producer and the consumer together. Marketing also includes transporting, pricing, packaging, storage and advertising. Farmers in Jamaica experience difficulty in selling their produce due to: †¢ A lack of properly organized systems to bring buyers and sellers together i. e. buyers are not aware of what farmers are producing and farmers are not fully aware of the needs of buyers. †¢ Competition from imported agricultural products Extension Services Although there is an increasing number of professionals now operating farming enterprises, most Jamaican farmers are relatively old and have only basic education (grade 9). Therefore there is need to give these farmers constant and individual help to improve their agricultural knowledge. Extension officers provide a vital link between the farmer and the researcher that develop modern farming technology and solutions for on the farm problems. The economic constraints being experienced in Jamaica have resulted in the reduction in the size of the extension service. Praedial Larceny Nothing is more discouraging to a farmer than the theft of his produce. CLASSIFICATION OF CARIBBEAN FARMS Farms are classified according to size and what they produce. Distinguishing Features of Farmers (According to Size) Large Farms Large farms occupy more than 25 hectares, mainly produce one crop or type of livestock and are geared for export. These farms are operated and managed by individuals, co- operations or government and in some cases absentee owners. They employ a skilled labour force as well as semi-skilled and unskilled workers. They farms tend to be highly mechanized or in some cases little mechanization is used but instead large numbers of workers. The profits from these farms in the case of foreign owners are repatriated. Medium Sized Farms The size of these farms range anywhere from 2. 5 to 25 hectares. They are owned and operated by the farmer and usually requires hired labour. These farms usually produce a variety of crops or livestock or both crops and livestock for domestic use. In recent time medium sized farms are accessing export markets. Small Farms These farms are less than 0. 5 hectares to a maximum of 2. hectares. They are owned and operated by the farmer and family labour is used. They produce for local markets and use simple hand tools e. g. hoe, fork, and cutlass. Distinguishing Features of Farms (According to Produce) Crops Farm These farms are of all sizes and produce a variety of crops for the local and possibly export market. Some mechanization is involved especially in land preparation and pest and disease control. The farmer usually owns the land and some labour is hired. [pic] Livestock These farms are also of all sizes depending on the type of enterprise e. . fish, cattle, rabbits and goats. It is owned and operated by an individual, group or government and production is mainly for the domestic market e. g. pork, beef, fish are all used in Jamaica. Monoculture/Mono-cropping In a mono-cropping system, the farmer concentrates on growing only one major crop e. g. sugarcane on a plot of land or in a particular area for an extended period of time. Relatively few of these farms are found in the region. Absentee owners appoint managers to run the farms. In general, these farms are productive but the profits are exported. In cases where the farms are locally owned the profits remain in the country and help with its development. On these farms soil and crop management are uniform, since they are dealing with one crop. This repeating of crop and soil management practices can have negative effects such as: †¢ Grater opportunity of spreading pests and diseases, which may destroy the entire crop. †¢ Continuous ploughing with heavy equipment can destroy soil structure †¢ Cultural practices such as burning of sugar cane can destroy soil structure and beneficial soil organisms. Mixed Cropping In mixed cropping the farmer depends on several plots for his income. Maximum use is made of land space and it is easier to check the spread of pest and diseases. In mixed cropping: †¢ Crops may be grown on the same farm but on different plots. [pic] †¢ Crops may be intercropped on the same plot. [pic] Situation: a farmer often grows one main crop e. g. sugar cane but also cultivates other (cash crops), which he uses to provide his weekly supply of food and to help pay his bills by selling the surplus produce. Such a situation is considered mixed cropping since he has other crops on which he can depend. Mixed Farming Involves the growing of crops and the rearing of animals on the same farm. They can be of and size but usually medium to large and production is basically for a local market, some produce may be exported. The farms are owned and operated by individuals, groups or government. Advantages: o Maximum use is made of land space. o Farms have more than one source of income. o It is easier to check the spread of pests and diseases. Disadvantages †¢ A higher level of management is required. †¢ There is a need to find market for different types of produce. †¢ Animals can damage crops if the y are not properly enclosed or tied. Organic Farming Organic farming is the use of agricultural systems to produce food and fiber without the use of artificial pesticides, fertilizer and genetically modified plants. Crop rotation and the building of biodiversity are very important. Pesticides used come from plants and are used as a last resort and their effects are short lived. Soil amendments come from renewable resources such as farmyard manure and composts. The strategy is to build up healthy soils through cover crops, composts and organically based amendments to build up healthy soils. These plants are better able to resist pest and diseases. Weeds are controlled through cover crops, mulching, flame weeding and crop rotation. When pests and diseases get out of control a variety of strategies are used for their control e. g. insect predators, mating disruption, traps, barriers and bio-chemicals. Agro-Forestry Agro-forestry is an integrated land use system. It refers to land –use systems in which trees are grown on the same land as agricultural crops and/or animals in a spatial arrangement or in a time sequence. Some examples are coconuts under-planted with pasture, apiculture with tree systems and aquaculture under mangroves. Agro-forestry systems resemble the natural ecosystems. The general aim of agro-forestry is to supply and increase a sustainable output of the basic necessities including cash. Agro-forestry is important because the following reasons. †¢ Environmental deterioration – due to the actions of man, natural disasters and volcanic action lead to deforestation. †¢ High rates of oxidation of organic matter due to high temperatures as well as excessive evaporation of moisture. †¢ Soil erosion. †¢ Population pressure for land for a variety of purposes such as housing. †¢ Need for fuel wood. Integrated Farm Farms are said to be integrated when the waste products from one enterprise is used as an in put in another production enterprise e. g. poultry waste can be used in fish farming and cattle rearing. Integrated farms attempt to eliminate the accumulation of agricultural waste by further utilization in production. Sugarcane Feed for ruminants (cattle) Waste Garden (compost) Garden excess and waste Feed ruminants INSTITUTIONS WHICH SUPPORT LOCAL AND REGIONAL AGRICULTURAL For a country’s agricultural sector to maximize its potential and contribute to a nation’s development; numerous organizations and institutions must play an integral role. These institutions may be government or private, local based, regional or international. The roles played by these institutions may encompass: Education ? Research ? Technical assistance ? Poverty reduction ? Rural development These organizations may form a cornerstone for development and ensure sustainable development, food security, poverty reduction, and prosperity. Some institutions have specific roles e. g. CFNI – nutrition. While some are broad based dealing with a wide cross section of development e. g. CDB. Rural Agricultural Development Authority (RADA) The objectives of RADA include: ? To provide technical extension assistance primarily to farmers in rural Jamaica in an effort to increase production and productivity. ? To train and develop extension personnel at all levels through in-service training programmes, geared towards improving their efficiency. ? To administer farmer training programmes and workshops thereby rendering farmers more knowledgeable and capable. ? To catalyze agricultural credit and input for small farmers. ? To aid in organization of marketing chains beneficial to both farmers and consumers. To cooperate with agencies involved in the development of rural infrastructure with a view to improving the quality of life in rural communities. ? To develop and operate service centres at strategic locations around the island thus bringing the service closer to farmers. ? To be the implementing agency for selected projects that impact on farmers and the biological environment. E. g. watershed development projects and fa rmer registration. ? To provide a free flow of information from policy makers and research organizations to farmers and from farmers upwards to these same persons. Bodles Research Station: Government funded research institution that carries out research in both crop production and animal husbandry to develop new and improved methods of farming, pest and disease control. They also seek to develop new plant and animal breeds which are suitable for local conditions. Jamaica Livestock Association (J. L. A. ): The J. L. A. is concerned with the development of the Jamaica livestock sector. It is a public company offering shares therefore it is concerned with the welfare of share holders. They provide agricultural support services for improving development of the industry such as quality input and technology development and implementation. Jamaica Agricultural Society (J. A. S. ): The JAS represent the interests of all farmers lobbying for agricultural friendly policies for agricultural sustainability and development. They also promote and support agricultural and industrial shows as well as operating a supply subsidiary (JLA farm stores), providing agricultural inputs at affordable costs to farmers. Scientific Research Council (SRC): They undertake research into new and improved technologies in agriculture. They are currently spearheading efforts to implement tissue culture and hydroponics in Jamaica. Sugar Industry Research Institute (SIRI) SIRI main function is to research and develop methods to improve agriculture technology as it relates to sugar cane production. They aim to improve efficiency in all areas of sugar cane production. Their main functions are: †¢ The development of new varieties of sugar cane which are high yielding, drought resistant, pest and disease resistant. †¢ The development of machinery and equipment suitable for Jamaican conditions. †¢ Provide technical assistance in irrigation, drainage and water management. Develop ideal fertilizer preparations based on the nutritional requirement of a crop. †¢ Promote the safe and efficient use of agro chemicals e. g. herbicides and insecticides. †¢ To study, monitor and provide technical advice in control and eradication of pests and diseases. CARICOM – Caribbean Community (Established by th e treaty of Chaguarnas May 1, 1973) Aim is to enhance regional trade, develop common policies, and act as a negotiating body among member states. So as to promote economic, social, cultural and political development through integration. Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) Provides loans for development and establishment of agricultural industries and farms e. g. irrigation, training, fisheries, as well as infrastructural development e. g. roads, water supply. Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI ) †¢ Provide for and conduct research into farming methods, pest and disease control, plant and animal breeding, technology for long term development. †¢ Coordinate and integrate research efforts in member states. †¢ Undertake training of farmers and agricultural personnel. †¢ Improve the utilization of modern technology to boost agricultural production. Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute (CFNI) †¢ Offers technical support for reducing malnutrition †¢ Promote proper nutrition education and provide educational material to this end. †¢ Develop nutrition policies †¢ To collaborate with governments to improve food security. †¢ To improve nutritional aspects of health services. University of the West Indies (UWI) †¢ Provide degree training in agriculture and related fields †¢ Conduct agricultural research for improving farming methods and pest and disease control. College of Agriculture, Science and Education (CASE) Offers training in agriculture. Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture (IICA) A specialized agency of the O. A. S. their aim is to promote agricultural development in a sustainable manner working with governments and Ministries of Agriculture. Their focus is geared toward †¢ Rural development and well-being. †¢ Diversification of agricultural production. †¢ Value-added production (agro-processing). †¢ Improving the region’s position in international trade. †¢ Research and development Food and Agriculture Organization (F AO) An organized branch of the United Nations which aims to †¢ Promote agricultural development. Pursue food security and improve nutrition. †¢ Develop infrastructure in rural areas. †¢ Provide information and technical assistance on a project basis to farmers. †¢ Provide a neutral platform for countries to meet and discuss issues and advice them on policy making. †¢ Coordinate government efforts at food security and improved nutrition. Organization of American States (OAS) Includes Thirty four (34) member states from the Americas. Provides technical assistance to countries and aims to improve health care and public administration. Inter-American Development Bank (I. D. B. ) The oldest and largest regional institution of multilateral development. The aim is to accelerate economic and social development in Latin American and Caribbean countries. Operations cover the entire spectrum of infrastructure, energy, transportation and urban development. Current lending priorities: poverty reduction, social equity and modernization. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) The lead organization in delivering Canada’s official development assistance programme. Assistance is provided in the form of goods and services, transfer of knowledge, skills and financial contributions. Areas of concentration include: – basic human needs – infrastructure – private sector development – women in development – human rights – environmental protection. These objectives are achieved by working with both the private sectors and governments of respective countries. Caribbean Basin Initiative (C. B. I) Enacted as Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act by United States. Products from beneficiary countries may be eligible for duty-free treatment in the U. S. A. United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Undertakes numerous projects aimed at improving the quality of life of citizens in developing countries. They also aim to expand democracy and free market activities ultimately leading to economic growth. European Union (EU) The EU provides grants and loans for a wide range of development projects and environmental protection initiatives in developing countries. They also provide technical assistance for many of these projects. INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SCIENCE Functions of Soil in our Environment. ? Habitat for organisms; Microbes, earth worms, rodents ? Medium for plant growth; Provide essential minerals and water. ? Important component in the water cycle ; storages in pores and evaporation ? Engineering medium; construction of roads and building etc. Soil Formation Soil Composition [pic] Soil formation is slow process. In the best conditions 1mm of soil may be form in a year. However, under poor condition it may take thousands of years for the same quantity of soil to form. Although soil is a renewable resource, in many areas soil is being lost at a much faster rate than it can be produced. SUMMARY OF SOIL FORMATION PROCESSES [pic]Transformation – weathering and decomposition [pic]Translocation – movement of soil materials up or down the soil profile [pic]Addition – rainfall, OM, deposited rock materials pic]Losses – erosion, washing out of soil material in the ground water(leaching) Weathering This is the physical and chemical breakdown of rocks and the mineral found in rocks. i) Physical weathering or disintegration involves the break up rocks into smaller fragments. Physical weathering is often referred to as mechanical weathering, since it involve the action of forces. Agents of physical weathering or disintegration: ? Temperature changes: – Contraction and expansion weaken the structure of the rocks. ? Running water ? Plants: – the roots of plants can grow between rock spaces and break up the rocks as they grow and become larger. Humans and animals The diagram shows the result of physical weathering; a single rock disintegrated into many fragments [pic] ii) Chemical weathering involve changing the chemical composition of rock s/ the minerals in rock via chemical reactions. Primary minerals such as quartz Sio2 are changed into changed into secondary mineral such as aluminium silicates (clay mineral). Chemical weathering is accelerated by the physical disintegration of rocks, which increases the surface of rocks, causing the rate of chemical reactions to increase. In addition, water and warmth are important factors which, influencing the rate of chemical weathering. Water is a universal solvent in which reactions can take place while, as temperature increases the rate of reactions increases. EXAMPLES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING Carbonation and solution: Water combines with Carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid. Examples: (1) H2O + CO2 ———— H2CO3 + CaCO3 ———Ca(HCO3)2 (2) CaCo3 + H2CO3 ——- Ca2+ + 2HCO3- Hydration: – Water combine with rock minerals causing a chemical change in the mineral structure. Examples: anhydride (CaSO4) + Water (H2O) = Gypsum (CaSO4-H2O) 2Fe2O3 + 3H2O ——- 2Fe2O3. 3H2O Hematite limonite Hydrolysis: The water molecule splits in to H+ and OH-and reacts with minerals CaSiO 3 + 2H2O ——– HSiO3 + Ca(OH)2 Calcium silicates silicic acid calcium hydroxide Oxidation: Oxygen combines with mineral elements to form oxides. Example: a rusting sign post. Soil formation factors These are environmental factors, which determines the type of soils that are formed i. soil colour, profile depth, chemical features and biotic characteristics. i) Parent material: Parent material refers to the type of rock material from which soil forms. It includes bedrock, transported (by water, wind or gravity) and deposited materials originated from rocks. Alluvial – transported by water Colluvial – dislodged and deposited by gravity *** Soil is not necessarily formed from the underlining bed rock *** The parent material contributes to the physi cal and chemical properties of the soil, such as texture, pH, mineral content. |ROCKS CHRACTERISTICS | | | | |Igneous rocks |Rocks formed from cooled molten material | | |Volcanic rocks may acid or basic | | |Granite is an example of igneous rocks | | | | |Sedimentary rocks |The most abundant rock types | | |Formed from deposited materials included rock fragments | | |Usually layered | | |Limestone and sand stone are examples | | | | |Metamorphic rocks |Formed from sedimentary rock when these rocks are exposed to great heat and | | |pressure. | | |Example limestone changed to marble | PARENT MATERIAL |SOIL PROPERTIES | | | | |SOFT LIMESTONE |DARK IN CLOUR | | |SHALLOW | | |UNDERLAID WITH MARL | | | | |HARD LIMESTONE |SOIL VARY IN COLOUR FROM BROWN TO RED, INCLUDING BAUXITIC SOILS | | | | |SHALES |FREE DRAIINING | | RICH IN POTASH | | |PRONE TO SLIPPING AND EROSION | | | | |PURPLE CONGLOMORATES |OCCUR MAINLY ON SLOPES | | |SUSCEPTABLE TO EROSION | | |LOW WATER HOLDING CAPA CITY | | | | |OTHER CONGLOMORATES |ACID CLAYS | | |LOW FERTLITY | | | | |GRANITE AND POPHYRY |GRAVELLY SOIL | | |SHALLOW | | |ACIDIC | | |LIGHT TEXTURE | | |EASELY ERODED | ii) Climate: Agents of climate such as temperature, moisture (rainfall) and wind contributes to rock disintegration and chemical weathering and consequently the type soil that is formed. Warm temperature, as is the case in the tropics, increase the rate of weathering. The amount of moisture present will also affect the rate of soil formation, by influencing the rate of weathering and decomposition. iii) Topography: the topography is the shape or contour of the land surface. Soils formed on slopes then to be thinner than those that are formed on gently sloping lands. Low lying areas, which are poorly drained, have different chemical properties indicated by a grey colour down the soil profile. [pic] iv) Time: the longer the soil formation processes are in action the soil horizons would be more developed and also the soil would be more weathered. v) Biotic factors (vegetation and animals): Soil animals such as earthworms influence soil development by mixing soil components and aerate soils as they burrow through the soil. The mixing action enhances the rate of chemical and physical change in the soil. Fungi and bacteria decompose organic matter. The leaves and roots of plants add organic matter to the soil and contribute to the weathering of rocks. Soil Profile The soil profile is a vertical section of view of a soil showing the horizons or layer. [pic] Soil Profile OSuperficial surface layer consist mainly of plant remains such as fallen and other partially decomposed organic materials ATop soil – divided into two layers on the basis of soil colour ? The upper layer is darker due to a higher concentration of organic matter ? Usually there is an abundance of soil organisms and plant roots ? The top soil generally has a loose structure ? Usually the most fertile layer E BSubsoil- colour of this layer is red to orange due to the accumulation of mineral called oxides ? Proportion of gravel may begin to increase ? Clay content increases caused by the downward washing and accumulation of clay. ? The tap roots of some plants may be visible ? The soil is more compact CWeathered rock/Parent material – contain gravel or generally coarse material D/RBed Rock – Solid rock or parent materials Importance understanding the Soil Profile †¢ Soil horizons help to determine the soil type. †¢ Most plant nutrients are present in the top soil, which can be used to determine the soil fertility. †¢ Subsoil compactness will give a hint to the drainage of the soil. Type of bedrock and parent material will influence chemical and physical soil properties. Physical Properties of soils Soil texture The texture of a soil is determined by the ratio of sand, silt and clay particles present in the soil. The percentage of sand, silt and clay soils can b e used to classify soils into three main texture classes; [pic]Sandy soils —— Coarse [pic]Loamy soil —— Moderately coarse, medium to moderately fine †¢ Clay Soils ——- Fine NOTE – IN THE FIELD THERE ARE MANY VARATION TO THESE TEXTURE CLASSES. THE SOIL TEXTURE TRIANGLE BELOW SHOWS THE MAJOR SOIL TYPES. [pic] In the field soil texture can be determined by the feel method i. e. feeling the soil between the finger. Hence, soil texture can be simply defined as the feel of the soil between the fingers. Soil texture is very difficult to change in the field but on a small scale adding enough of another soil type and mixing thoroughly can modify the texture of one soil type. Soil Particles and size Gravel200 – 20 mm Fine gravel20 – 2 mm Coarsesand2 – 0. 2 mm Fine sand0. 2 – 0. 02 mm Silt0. 02 – 0. 002 mm Clayless than 0. 002 PROPERTIES OF SOIL S AND SOIL PARTICLES Clay ? Clay Particles stick together ? Particles are closely packed ? Highest percentage of micro pores ? Low porosity ? Good for fish ponds and growing rice ? High water holding capacity ? Moderated to high CEC ? Low drainage ? Moderate to high shrinkage and swelling Easily compacted ? Resist wind erosion ? Resist change in soil pH ? Retards leaching ? Rich in nutrients ? Poor structure ? Have negative electric charge (to attract Positively charged nutrients) Sand ? Particles do not stick together ? Part icles can be seen with the naked eye. ? Particles loosely arranged ? Large pore spaces ? Resist compaction ? Easily tilled soon after wetting ? OM decomposed rapidly ? Generally coarse ? Well aerated ? Well drained ? pH is easily changed ? Poor water holding ability ? High rate of leaching ? Low nutrient content Silt ? Particles are smooth and powdery ? Intermediate between clay and sand ? Particles feel smooth but not sticky ? Have and electric charge ? Easily compacted ? Easily blown by wind erosion LOAMS Soils classified as loams tend to demonstrate the properties of the three particles in an almost equal proportion. In the field, there are different types of loams e. g. clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay loam and sandy loam. Identifying Texture by Feel Feel test – Rub some moist soil between your fingers. †¢ Sand feels gritty. †¢ Silt feels smooth. †¢ Clays feel sticky. Ball squeeze test – Squeeze a moistened ball of soil in your hand. †¢ Coarse textures (sand or sandy loam) soils break with slight pressure. Sandy loams and silt loams stay together but change shape easily. †¢ Fine textured (clayey or clayey loam) soils resist breaking. Ribbon test – Squeeze a moistened ball of soil out between your thumb and fingers. †¢ Sandy soils will not ribbon. †¢ Loam, silt, silty clay loam or clay loam soil ribbons l ess than 1 inch. †¢ Sandy clay loam, silty clay loam or clay loam ribbons 1 to 2 inches. †¢ Sandy clay, silty clay, or clay soil ribbons more than 2 inches. A soil with as low as 20 percent clay, may behave as a heavy clayey soil. A soil needs 45 percent to over 60 percent sand to behave as a sandy soil. [pic] Activity ; Determine the texture of soil samples Soil characteristics |CLAY SOILS |SANDY SOILS |LOAMS | |Soil Conditions when dry | | | | |Do not from stable aggregates | |^ | | |Easily broken | |^ |^ | |Moderately easily broken | | |^ | |Hard and stable |^ | | | |   | | | | |Soil conditions when wet | | | | |Very stable aggregates |^ | | | |Moderately stable | | |^ | |Very unstable aggregates | |^ | | |   | | | | |Ability to form ribbons | | | | |Do not form ribbons | |^ | | |broken appearance of ribbons | | |^ | |Thin ribbons, will brake | |^ | |Very long & flexible ribbons |^ | | | Soil Structure Soil structure describes the arrangement of individual soil part icle. Individual soil particles come together to form aggregates, which may appear, in a number of shapes; [pic]Granular and crumb – aggregates are loosely arranged, usually found at the soil surface especially those having high organic matter content, it is considered to be the ideal structure soil structure. [pic] [pic]Plate like – generally found in the subsoil can be produced by soil compaction; this type of structure may reduce air, water movement and also hinder the penetration of roots. [pic] Blocky – this type of structure is usually seen in the Subsoil – associated with clay soils [pic] [pic]Prism like or columnar – found in the subsoil of clays [pic] [pic]Structure less soil has single grains or massive structures. [pic] ACTIVITY: Use a pitch fork to remove small sections of top soil and subsoil, identify the types of soil structure observed. Porosity Pores are spaces occurring naturally between soil particle and soil aggregates and direc tly depends on the soil structure. Porosity measures the amount of pore spaces in a soil sample. Pore spaces are important for the growth of plant roots and the movement of soil water and air. Based on size there are two types of pores observed in soils macro-pores and micro-pores. Macro-pores allow water and air to move through the soil at a faster rate, while micro-pores holds water more tightly therefore they act as long term storage of water. [pic] | | | |Pore spaces |Features | | | | |Low Porosity |Water logging, inadequate oxygen in the soil, hinder root penetration, micro-pores | | |dominates. | | | |Improve porosity |Add organic matter (compost) | | | | |Reduce porosity |Soil compaction | WHAT IS SOIL BULK DENSITY? This is the mass per unit volume of a dry soil sample. The volume includes the soil particles and pores spaces. Soils that are more compact usually have a higher bulk density that is having more soil particles and less pore spaces. REMINDERS Low porosity = higher bulk density Compact soils = low porosity = high bulk density* Clay soil = generally low porosity Sandy soils = higher porosity [pic] Activity: list the characteristics of soil with poor soil structure | | |How does soil structure influence plant growth? | SOIL COLOUR The colour of the soil gives clues to the physical and chemical properties of the soil. The soils can be used make a quick evaluation of soils in the field. Soils colours are mainly determine by oxides of metals and organic matter. Soils display a wide range colour for example; †¢ Reds †¢ Browns †¢ Yellows †¢ Black †¢ Green †¢ White Organic matter cause soils to be darker in colour, which may also hide the effect of oxides. Organic matter is associated with good soil structure as well as soil fertility. Iron oxides tend to produce soils that are yellow, brown or red. The colour will depend on the form iron oxide. Carbonates such as Calcite (CaCo3) give soils whitish colour. †¢ Bright soil colours are associated with well-drained soils and well aerated soils †¢ Grays and mixture bright colours and grays (mottled) indicates a poorly drained and poorly aerated soils †¢ When soil that are rich in iron oxides becomes water logged the iron is reduced form the ferrous to the ferric from which give the soil a grey colour |Condition | | |Subsurface soil colour | |Soils in anaerobic conditions, such as those in poorly | | |drained depressions, will normally have dull, grey |Water-logged soils, poor aeration | |B-horizons. Alternatively, aerobic soils on well-drained and |Dull grey (if in low rainfall soi ls 0-20 in) | |aerated slopes have bright reddish-brownish colours. | | |Well drained soils | | |Yellow, red-brown, black (if in forest soils) | | | | | |Poorly drained soils | | |Mottled grey (if in humid soils) | | | | SOIL WATER Water is essential for plant growth. Soil is capable of being a storehouse of water and becoming the main source of water for land plants. Soil water plays a significant role in several natural processes- evaporation, infiltration and drainage of water, diffusion of gases, conduction of heat, and movement of salts and nutrients are all dependent upon the amount of water present in soil. Plants meet their water requirement from water stored in soil. Soil moisture can be improved with aeration. Soil water is contained in soil pores Soil water contains dissolved substances for example nutrient elements and organic matter HOW DOES WATER MOVE UPWARD IN THE SOIL? Think about narrow tubes of different diameter placed vertically in beaker with water, as the diameter of the container decreases the height of the water in the tubes increases. The forces involved are called cohesion and adhesion. ? Cohesion attraction between water molecules ? Adhesion attraction between water and soil surface CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL WATER ? FIELD CAPACITY – water held in the soil after excess water has drained away ? CAPILARY WATER – water held by cohesion and adhesion [surface tension] ? GRAVITATIONAL WATER – water that drains under the influence of gravity especially after rain fall ? HYGROSCOPIC WATER – water that is held tightly around soil particles. This water is nit available to plants. Importance of soil Organic Matter ORGANIC MATTER (OM) = Decaying and decayed plant and animal remains †¢ Low percentage present in soil Colloidal in nature †¢ Have electric charge. †¢ Binds mineral particles to form stable aggregates. (improve soil structure) †¢ Humus is the final stage of decomposed material †¢ Responsible for the loose nature of productive soils. †¢ Increase water-holding ca pacity. †¢ Source of plant nutrients such as phosphorus and sulphur and major source of nitrogen. †¢ Supply food for soil organism. Chemical Properties of the soil Soil pH The term soil pH refers to the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a particular soil type. The soil pH or soil reaction is determined by the concentration of Hydrogen H+ and hydroxyl OH- in the soil. ? H+ higher than OH- soil acidic OH- higher than H+ soil alkaline soil In addition alkaline soils have more Ca, mg, K, and Na ions (base forming ions), while acid soil have more acid forming elements such as aluminium ions. ___________ Items & pH ________ Most acid soils 4. 0-6. 0 Lemon juice 2. 2-2. 4 Orange juice 3. 4-4. 0 Vinegar 4. 0-4. 5 Acid rain 3. 0-5. 0 Clean rain water 5. 5-5. 7 Fresh milk 6. 3-6. 6 Blood plasma 7. 0-7. 2 Mild soap solution 8. 5-10. 0 ____________________ The pH scale ranges from one to fourteen; a pH of 7 is neutral, above 7 acidity increases while below the neutral point alkalinity. | | |ACIDITY INCREASING | | |ALKALINITY | | | | | | | | |INCREASING | | | |1 |2 | |Nitrogen |Essential component of chlorophyll, promote growth especially leaves. | |Phosphorus |Important role in fruit and grain maturity, stimulates flowering, promote the development of | | |the root system. |Potassium |Carbohydrate formation and translocation, essential for the development of flowers, fruits | | |and seeds. | |Calcium |Occurs in the cell walls | |Sulphur |Formation of amino acid which forms protein | |Magnesium |Present in chlorophyll | |Micronutrients | | |Iron | |Sodium | | |Chlorine | | |Selenium | | |Manganese | | |Zinc | | |Copper | | |Molybdenum | | |Boron | | HOW THE SOIL HOLD PLANT NUTRIENTS? Cation exchange capacity (CEC) explains how the soil is able to hold cations such as Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, H+ and NH4+, which are in important for crop nutriti on. Clay and humus both have a net negative charge, so they give the soil the ability to attract cations. These ions will become attached to the soil complex (see diagram below). The CEC cation exchange value can be used in evaluating soil fertility. Soils with higher CEC are usually more fertile for example soil with high clay and or organic matter content. Anion such as sulphates, nitrates and phosphates are not attach to the soil particles therefore they are easily leached from the soil. HOW DOES CEC AFFECTS ABILITY OF THE SOIL TO BUFFER AGAINST pH CHANGES? [pic] MANAGING SOIL FERTILITY The soil is a very import resource in crop production. Therefore, it must be managed properly to ensure the best crop yield possible on a continuous basis. It is very important that we understand how the physical and chemical soil properties affect the fertility of soils FERTILIZERS Fertilizers are materials organic and inorganic which supply elements essential for the growth of plants Organic fertilizers Organic fertilizers are materials from animal waste and plant material which are used to supply plant nutrients. Examples of organic fertilizers; – Fresh animal manure – Sewage – Compost – Green manure Advantages of organic fertilizers †¢ Micro-organism breakdown organic, releasing nutrient slowly. Hence, nutrients are less likely to be wash out of the soil. †¢ Contains less nutrients per kg, therefore it has a low burn potential and less likely to pollute ground water and rivers. †¢ Contains natural growth factors, which are beneficial to crop plants. Disadvantages of organic fertilizers †¢ Nutrient content not precise depends on materials from which it is made †¢ Organic fertilizers have a low quantity of nutrient per kg it require relatively large quantity to be effective. This cause organic fertilizers to be bulky, making it more expensive to transport and difficult to apply. †¢ It may contain disease causing organism and/or weed seeds. Inorganic fertilizers These are inorganic salts containing elements required for plant growth manufactured from natural material or synthetic materials. Physical forms of fertilizers †¢ Salts †¢ Pellets †¢ Liquid Soluble forms of fertilizers †¢ Quick release – very soluble form †¢ Slow release – Fertilizer grade Commercial fertilizers are manufactured to contain a precise quantity. The is shown on the container by number which show the grade e. g. 14-28-14. What does 14 – 28 – 14 means? The fertilizer contains 14% N, 28% P and 14% k. A complete fertilizer contains N, P and K. Incomplete fertilizers supply one or two elements. Examples urea, triple super phosphates and murate of potash. Advantages of inorganic fertilizers †¢ The quantity of nutrient is known †¢ Concentrated source of nutrients †¢ Less bulky †¢ Nutrients are in a more available form, to be used by crops Disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers †¢ They have a high crop burn potential due to concentrated salts. †¢ Excessive use can easily pollute ground water and rivers †¢ Easily leached from the soil. †¢ Excessive use can cause soil to become saline [having too much salt] Practical activity Identifying types of fertilizers Methods of applying fertilizer †¢ Broad casting †¢ Placement -Circular banding – Row banding †¢ Foliar application †¢ Fertigation Importance of plant sexual reproduction in agriculture THINK OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF MANGOES THAT YOU HAVE SEEN OR EATEN. What cause this variation in plants? How does variation in crops (cultivars) benefits agriculture? The flower ? A specialized shoot consisting of reproductive organs ? Structures are arranged in whorls ? A complete flower has four whorls WhorlsOrgans a. Calyx – sepals b. Corolla- petals c. Stamen – filament and anther d. Pistil – Stigma, style & ovary One or more of the structures may be absent( |STRUCTURES |Type of flower | | Calyx |Corolla |Stamen |Pistil | | |( |( |( |- |Staminate | |( |( |- |( |Pistillate | |( |( |( |( |Hermaphrodite | ? Some plants have bisexual flowers only e. g. tomatoes, while others such as cantaloupe, have mal e and female flowers on the same plant. Plants such as some cultivars of papaya have male and female on the different plants. ? In addition to reproduction, the flowers of some plants are eaten (broccoli and cauliflower), while many are used for its aesthetic value (anthurium rose and chrysanthemum). Pollination ? Transfer of pollens which contains the male gamete to the stigma ? Pollination is necessary for fertilization ? Fertilization is necessary for the development of true fruits and viable seeds Types of pollinations Self pollination ? Transfer of pollen within a flower or different flowers on the same plant ? Only one plant is involve therefore genetic variation will be reduce ? Plants produce tends to be more uniform in characteristics. Cross pollination ? Flower are on different plants ? Plants have the characteristics of both parent ? Increase variations e. g. ? Yield ? Shape ? Size ? Increase resistance to disease ? Colour ? Taste ? Important for producing new varieties of crop plants and to improve existing varieties ? Crossing plants of the same species that are not closely related can produce new varieties. The offspring produce are called Hybrids. ? Hybrids tend to perform better than both parents i. e. produce higher yield and are more resistant to pest and diseases. Diagram showing crosspollination [pic] Fertilization is the joining of the male and female gamete to produce an embryo. The male gamete is found in the pollen grain while the female gametes are present in the ovule. Diagram showing processes involved in seed and fruit formation. [pic] THINK ABOUT IT You may have eaten or head about seed fruits such as oranges and grades. How is possible for these fruits to be formed without seeds. Mas Joe says that the corns he harvested have ‘scattered grains’ i. e. does not have uniforms rows of corn seeds. He believes that this due to the fact that the worker talked a lot during the planting of the crop. Using your scientific knowledge explain to him the true reason why his corns are ‘ scattered grains’ [pic][pic]

2008 Summer Olympics Essay

Published by  © 2008 by Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilm, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016. IM-1826 CONTENTS Introduction Chapter 1. Introduction to Sports, Sportscasters, and Sportscasting Chapter 2. The Historical Development of Sports and Sportscasting Chapter 3. The Economics of Sports, Sportscasters, and Sportscasting Chapter 4. Audiences for Sports and Sportscasting Chapter 5. The Role of Media in Sports and Sportscasting Chapter 6. Sociocultural Perspectives on Sports and Sportscasting Chapter 7. Practicum on Sportscasting Chapter 8. The Future of Sportscasters/Sportscasting Suggestions for Teaching Sportscasting Syllabus Critical Dates Student Profile Invitation for Sportscaster Speaker 5 7 13 19 25 33 41 55 61 65 67 69 73 75 Introduction Conceived as a supplement to Sportscasters/Sportscasting: Principles and Practices, this collection of exercises adds to the pedagogical mix. Following the outline of a broad approach to understanding the topic—which includes the history, economics, audience, media, sociology, practicality, and future concerns of sports and sportscasting, it has this general outline: Chapter l. Introduction to the study of sportscasters and sportscasting Chapter 2. The historical development of sports and sportscasting Chapter 3. The economics of sports, sportscasters, and sportscasting (sports advertisers and advertising, sport tourism, sports marketing and management, the sports-media complex, sportscasters’ earnings, and sports sponsorship) Chapter 4. Audiences for sports and sportscasting (U. S. audiences, international audiences, and special events) Chapter 5. The role of the media in sports and sportscasting (print media, broadcasting, and beyond, sportscasters—the â€Å"Jockocracy† issue, sportscasters as celebrities, and sportscaster profiles) Chapter 6. Sociocultural perspectives on sports and sportscasting (pervasiveness and salience of sports, role modeling/heroes, and issues—racial and gender consideration) Chapter 7. Practicum on sportscasting Chapter 8. Future concerns and considerations about sports and sportscasting Designed for teachers and students, as well as anyone interested in the topic, the Exercises in Sportscasting includes a range of ap5 6 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING proaches. The idea here is that participants in this process will want to learn as much as they can about the subject. As you will see, each chapter offers several ways to enhance the learning process. Some chapters encourage discussions of topics with family and friends and/or in the classroom, and most are meant to get you both thinking and talking about sportscasting-related issues. There also are a number of bibliographic lists, encouraging further research on various topics, along with an approach to reporting on your reading that encourages critical thinking. Exercise 1. 4 is a â€Å"Fill in the blanks,† with the answers on the next page, as is Exercise 2. 3 â€Å"Sport history firsts,† and the essays in Exercise 2. 4 have suggested inclusions for answers. If you are interested in doing survey scholarship, there are two examples here: Exercise 4. 5 offers directions on how to get information on audiences for the Olympic Games, along with a sample and coding forms, and Exercise 5. 8 gives you a good background for interviewing sportscasters. In the hope that you use soft drinks, as suggested, you should enjoy Exercise 5. 6, â€Å"The Brent Musburger Drinking Game†Ã¢â‚¬â€ another way to monitor sportscasterspeak. There actually are a number of fun exercises here, as you will see. In terms of the practicum, you are asked to consider the field of sports journalism, examine sports cliches, construct a resume, analyze your voice, and actually practice sportscasting. As in anything else, the more you are willing to try these various activities, the more it will help you in the long run. This is, after all, only your beginning. After the exercises is a separate section focusing on the way this course has been taught in the past. It includes the following: 1. Syllabus 2. Critical Dates 3. Student profile 4. A suggested invitation for a sportscaster speaker Designed for teachers, this section is suggestive only, and is open to input—as is, in fact, this whole project. Your responses are encouraged, and I wish you well in your analysis of and/or career in sportscasting. Chapter 1 Introduction to Sports, Sportscasters, and Sportscasting Exercise 1. 1: Your Definition/Description of Sportscasting We all have our own experiences with the subject of sportscasting. Tell about yours, including your interest in the topic. At some point, give your own definition and/or description of sportscasting. In addition, what has been your personal experience with sportscasting and sportscasters? Have you met any sportscasters personally? Who are your favorites? Who are your least favorite(s)? Think about why, and share your thoughts. Exercise 1. 2: Globalization of Sports (book review) From the bibliography that follows, choose a book and critique it, including the following information: 1. The book: Full name of the title, author(s) name, when and where published and by whom, number of pages and illustrations. 2. Author(s): Who she or he is—profession, background, experience, and other publications. 3. Frame of reference: The writer’s point of view, or bias. Do you think she or he is qualified to write about this subject? Is the book based on personal experience? 4. Thesis: What is the main point here? Why do you think this book was written? Read the preface and the book jacket, if applicable. Give a brief description of the book in terms of its thesis, and give your opinion on how well it is supported. 7 8 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING 5. Evidence: What kinds of arguments does the author use, and how successfully? Do you think the facts are valid? Are the conclusions under- or overstated, and how do they stand up? 6. Contribution to knowledge: What does this book add to both your education and that of others who might read it? Who might like to read this book? 7. Your evaluation of the book: Was it well written? Well organized? Would you read more books by this author? 8. Overall personal reaction: Was reading this book and writing this book report a worthwhile experience for you? Did you discuss this book with anyone? Bibliography on Globalization Allison, Lincoln (2006). The global politics of sport: The role of global institutions in sport. Oxford, UK: Routledge. Amis, John (2005). Global sport sponsorship. Oxford, UK: Berg Publishing. Andrews, David L. (2006). Sport-commerce-culture: Essays on sport in late capitalist America. New York: Peter Lang. Baimer, A. 2001. Sport, nationalism, and globalization: European and North American perspectives. Albany, NY: SUNY. Chandler, Joan M. 1988. Television and national sport: The U. S. and Britain. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Cronin, Mike and David Mayall (Eds. ) (1998). Sporting nationalisms. Oxford, UK: Taylor & Francis, Inc. Eitzen, D. Stanley (Ed. ) (2004). Sport in contemporary society: An anthology, 7th ed. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers. Foer, Franklin. 2004. How soccer explains the world: An unlikely theory of globalization. New York: Harper Perennial. Gems, Gerald R. (2006). The athletic crusade: Sport and American cultural imperialism. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Houlihan, Barrie. 1994. Sport and international politics. NY: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Ingham, Alan G. and John W. Loy (eds. ) 1993. Sport in social development: Traditions, transitions, and transformations. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Maguire, Joseph. 1999. Global sport: Identities, societies, civilizations. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Majumdar, Boria and Fan Hong (Eds. ) (2006). Modern sport the global obsession. Oxford, UK: Routledge. Miller, Toby, Geoffrey Lawrence, Jim McKay, and David Rowe (2001). Globalization and sport: Playing the world. London: Sage. Roche, Maurice (2001). Mega-events and modernity: Olympics and expos in the growth of global culture. London: Routledge. Instructor’s Manual 9 Sandvoss, Cornel. 2003. A game of two halves: Football fandom, television and globalisation. London: Routledge. Szymanski, Stefan and Andrew Zimbalist. (2005). National pastime: How Americans play baseball and the rest of the world plays soccer. Brookings Institution Press. Tomlinson, Alan and Christopher Young (Eds. ) (2006). National identity and global sports events. Albany: State University of New York Press. Van Bottenburg, Maarten and Beverley Jackson (2001). Global games. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. Wenner, Lawrence A. (Ed. ) (1998). MediaSport. New York: Routledge. Westerbeek, Han and Aaron Smith (2003). Sport business in the global marketplace. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Whannel, Garry (1992). Fields in vision: TV sport and cultural transformation. London: Routledge. Wilson, John. 1994. Playing by the rules: Sport, society, and the state. Detroit, MI: Wayne State UP. Exercise 1. 3: Sportscasting Firsts Lou Schwartz has put together a list of â€Å"Sportscasting Firsts, 1920Present,† available at http://www. americansporscasteronline. com, from American Sportscasters Online. Choose one of these events to research further, and feel free to add more to the list. Sept. 6, 1920 – First Radio Broadcast of a Prizefight -Jack Dempsey versus Billy Miske – WWJ Nov. 25, 1920 – First Radio Play-by-Play Broadcast of a Collegiate Football Game – Texas University versus Mechanical College of Texas – WTAW Aug. 5, 1921 – First Radio Broadcast of a Baseball Game-Pittsburgh Pirates versus Philadelphia Phillies Harold Arlin on KDKA Aug. 6, 1921 – First Radio Broadcast of a Tennis Match – Australia versus Great Britian, Davis Cup – Harold Arlin on KDKA Oct. 5, 1921 – First Radio Broadcast of a World Series- New York Yankees versus New York Giants Sandy Hunt and Tommy Cowan on WJZ Oct. 7, 1922 – First Radio Chain Broadcast- WJZ and WGY transmitted a World Series game from the field Grantland Rice and Graham McNamee 10 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING Nov. 24, 1923 – First Radio Broadcast of the Annual Army Navy football game – Graham McNamee Jan. 1, 1927 – First Coast-to-Coast Radio Program – Univ. of Alabama versus Stanford – originating from Pasadena, California, broadcast from the Rose Bowl – NBC network May 17, 1939 – First Televised Sports Event – Columbia versus Princeton baseball – Bill Stern on NBC Aug. 26, 1939 – First Television Broadcast of a Pro Baseball Game – Cincinnati Reds versus Brooklyn Dodgers Red Barber on W2XBS Oct. 22, 1939 – First Television Broadcast of a Pro Football Game-Brooklyn Dodgers versus Philadelphia Eagles W2XBS Feb. 25, 1940 – First Television Broadcast of a Hockey GameNew York Rangers versus Montreal Canadiens -W2XBS Feb. 28, 1940 – First Televsion Broadcast of a Basketball Game Fordham versus U. of Pittsburgh W2XBS Sept. 30, 1947 – First Televised World Series-New York Yankees versus Brooklyn Dodgers – aired on three stations: WABD, WCBS, WNBT -Bob Edge, Bob Stanton and Bill Slater Oct. 3, 1951 – First Coast-to-Coast Television Broadcast of a Baseball Game-NY Giants versus Brooklyn Dodgers, Game 3 of NL playoffs. Giants win on Bobby Thomson’s homerun known as the â€Å"Shot Heard ’Round the World. † Aug. 26, 1955 – First Color Television broadcast – Davis Cup match between Australia and the U. S. – NBC July 23, 1962 – First Satellite Telecast via Telstar Communications – included portion of Chicago Cubs versus Philadelphia Phillies from Wrigley Field – Jack Brickhouse Jan. 15, 1967 – First Television Broadcast of a Football Championship- Green Bay Packers versus Kansas City Chiefs – Jack Buck Nov. 8, 1972 – First Sports Telecast by HBO – New York Rangers versus Vancouver Canucks from Madison Square Garden reaches HBO’s 365 subscribers in Wilkes Barre, Pa. – Marty Glickman Instructor’s Manual 11 Aug. 16, 1976 – First Pro Football Game Outside the United States- St. Louis Cardinals versus San Diego Chargers in Japan- Jack Buck Aug. 3, 1993 – First Woman to do Television Play-by-Play of a Baseball Game -Colorado Rockies versus Cincinnati Reds Gayle Gardner on KNGN-TV in Denver Exercise 1. 4: Fill in the Blanks 1. The evolution of sportscasting has gone from sports reporting for information to in terms of its profitability. 2. Sportscasting is a $ industry. 3. Television executives and advertisers are primarily interested in sportscasters who can . 4. Super Bowl hype helps draw audiences of (number) viewers with advertising costing $ per minute.at ABC is credited with helping that network become 5. known for its sports, introducing shows like Wide World of Sports in 1967 and Monday Night Football in 1970. 6. Women sportscasters, although few in number, include: , , and . 7. According to Red Barber, was the first genuine pioneer in radio sports announcing. 8. In the 1960s, the annual number of network hours of sports programming was 787; in the 1970s, 1,340; and now it is . in advertising for 9. The major networks sell about $ sports. 10. Leading sportscasters currently earn salaries of -figure incomes. 11. Sporting events created for television, such as celebrity tennis or billiards, The Skins Games, battles of network â€Å"superstars,† and shows like them are called . 12. ABC paid $ for rights to the 1984 Los Angeles Olymfor the 1988 Calgary Olympics, and NBC paid pics, $ $ for the 2006 Torino Olympics and 2008 Beijing Olympics. 13. Americans spend about % of our gross national product (GNP) on sports. 12 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING 14. Sports marketing statistics show corporate sponsorship costs of $ for endorsements from sports figures, and about on event sponsorship and participation. $ 15. My personal favorite sportscaster is: . Answers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Infotainment Multibillion dollar industry Draw and sustain audiences 140+ million viewers, with advertising costing $2 million per thirty seconds Roone Arledge Mary Carillo, Gayle Gardner, Robin Roberts, Lesley Visser, etc. Major J. Andrew White 24/7 ABC $1. 33 billion, CBS $1. 43 billion, NBC $472 million, ESPN $1. 16 billion and ESPN2 $219 million, Fox $1. 18 billion, and TNT $221 million. Seven â€Å"Trashsports† ABC—$225 million 1984; $309 million 1988; NBC—$1. 5 billion for 2006 and 2008 One (1) percent $900 million for endorsements, $7. 7 billion for sponsorships (students’ choice) Chapter 2 The Historical Development of Sports and Sportscasting Exercise 2. 1: Oral Histories on Sports, Sportscasters, and Sportscasting Probably the best way for you to understand and appreciate the history of sports and sportscasting is by talking to people who have experience with the past. Let me suggest that you conduct interviews with two persons—preferably one male and one female, preferably separately, preferably both born before or during World War II about their early memories with sports, sportscasters, and sportscasting. Use your own knowledge about the history, economics, politics, content trends, and sociocultural implications of radio and television in your interviews. Prompt your interviewees to remember some of their favorite early programs, performers, even advertisers. Write up a summary of your findings, including detailed descriptions on when and where the interviews were performed, how long they lasted, whether you tape-recorded responses and/or wrote them down, whether or not those responses are reported verbatim, and overall how you felt about the survey procedure. Also, provide detailed descriptions about the persons you interviewed, especially demographically. This method has proven to be a fascinating way to learn history, and old-timers really enjoy the process. Be sure to thank them for sharing their memories! Exercise 2. 2: Hype in Sports History Often, we might wonder about what is hyped in sports history, and what might be ignored. As a sports scholar, you might consider the 13 14 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING following approach to sports media criticism of television and/or film: 1. Who are the actors in this episode or series, and what roles do they play? 2. Who made the program or movie: production company, producer, director, writer, director of cinematography, and so on? Have I seen other works by these people? Is it pertinent to know and mention them? 3. Do I like this episode or movie? Why? Why not? 4. Have I been fair with this episode or movie after only one viewing, or should I see it a second time to see what I might have missed? 5. What biases might I have toward the episode or movie’s star(s), director, and/or subject matter? 6. Have I been as objective as possible? Have I used examples to support my views? Have I been prejudiced by my attitude toward the episode or movie’s theme or plot? Have I described it accurately? Exercise 2. 3: Sports History Firsts Fill in the blanks. 1. The first successful sports broadcast in the United States: 2. In baseball, this broadcast took place during its 53rd season: . 3. Describe the first World Series sportscast: ________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ 4. Jack Graney, the first ex-athlete to occupy the broadcast booth, became known as: __________________________________. 5. The first Olympic Games broadcast for the American public were: ____________________________________________. 6. Davis Cup, the first tennis match, had reportage on this date: _________________________________________________. 7. The first broadcast of a college football game was: __________. 8. Radio covered the first boxing match between whom: _______. Instructor’s Manual 15 9. The first live sporting event on television was: _____________. 10. Regarding the print media, what was the first sport magazine to debut in the 1820s: __________________________________. 11. The newspaper that had the first distinct sports section: ______. 12. Name the first daily newspaper totally devoted to sports, with regional sections: ___________________________________. 13. HBO’s first regional sportscast: ________________________. 14. ESPN, the first twenty-four-hour all-sports cable network, began: _____________________________________________. 15. Ted Turner’s Goodwill Games first began: ________________. Answers 1. April 11, 1921, when the Pittsburgh Post’s sports editor, Florent Gibson, did the play-by-play over station KDKA, describing the no-decision fight between Johnny Ray and Johnny Dundee at Pittsburgh’s Motor Square Garden. 2. August 5, 1921, broadcast by Harold Arlin—Pittsburgh Pirates defeating the Philadelphia Phillies 8-5. 3. Thomas Cowan, sitting in a New York studio, recreated for the radio audience over stations WJZ and WBZ the 1921 World Series on October 5, as the New York Giants defeated the New York Yankees 5-3. Grantland Rice did the play-by-play. 4. â€Å"The Voice of the Indians,† 1932. 5. 1932 radio reports from Lake Placid for the winter games, Los Angeles for the summer games. Ted Husing provided summaries on WABC in New York. 6. August, 1921 over KDKA. 7. November 5, 1921, with Harold Arlin of KDKA covering Pittsburgh versus West Virginia; he yelled so hard at one touchdown that he knocked the station off the air. 8. Over WJY in 1921, the world heavyweight championship prize fight between Jack Dempsey and George Carpentier of France. 9. The second game of a baseball double-header between Columbia and Princeton, covered by Bill Stern out of New York’s Baker Field on May 17, 1939. 10. William Trotter Porter’s Spirit of the Times. 11. William Randolph Hearst’s New York Journal, 1895. 12. Frank DeFord’s The National, which debuted January, 1990. 16 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING 13. 1972 hockey game between the New York Rangers and Vancouver Canucks. 14. September, 1979. 15. 1986. Exercise 2. 4: Essays 1. Describe the broad trends that best depict qualifications of what makes and have made the best sportscasters over the years. 2. Trace the developments from sports journalism to sports broadcasting. 3. Discuss sportscasters themselves: as sponsors, celebrities/stars, as fans’ favorites, as former athletes (â€Å"jockocracy†), and as newscasters. 4. Outline some of the distinctions of the symbiosis between media and sport. Suggested Essay Answers 1. In the early days, voice was the most distinguishing characteristic. Review the Waldo Abbott 1941 quotation about phraseology, diction, rules, and regulations, and review some early sports journalists. The second phase of sportscasting concentrated more on knowledge of sport, and began the practice known as â€Å"jockocracy. † Currently, it appears that knowledge of television is what is critical. Consider Marty Glickman’s suggestion that succinctness, self-discipline and awareness of the action are the criteria. Still today the demographics of sportscasters remain pretty much within the purview of white males, aged thirty to fifty. It is found that local/regional sportscasters differ greatly from national network ones, the former being more involved personally with the teams. 2. Bruce Garrison shows how sports reporting is becoming more professional—list some examples. We are thought to be in the â€Å"age of realism†Ã¢â‚¬â€what Karmer (1987) calls the double whammy of electronic media and tabloid journalism, such that the rules are being rewritten. Print was revolutionized by the introduction of USA Today— especially graphics, statistics, and wide-ranging sports coverage. But so far no newspaper has caught on; even though The National was well done, sports fans today mostly depend on television and the Internet for their coverage. Television itself has revolutionized sports Instructor’s Manual 17 coverage, from ABC in the 1970s to the introduction of ESPN and other 24/7 sports channels. We have moved from game stories centered on quotes from players and coaches and postgame trips to the locker room to instant messaging and â€Å"reality† monitoring. It becomes sobering to realize how we are moving from being told about sports to choosing what stories we want to follow; in other words, we are increasingly becoming more active in the process. 3. Cite some examples of sportscasters as sponsors, and then consider the issue of how some of them become bigger than the events they are covering. Who are â€Å"homers†? Who are former athletes? Who are newsmakers? Include considerations of race, gender, homophobia, and the like. 4. What is real relative to sportscasting? What differences are there between how reportage is received from print media, radio or television, the Internet, iPods, and other technologies? Discuss various production techniques, such as slo-mo replays, time-lapse shots, telestrators, wireless microphones, cameras attached to items like pucks, and how they might determine how a story is delivered. And consider how editing and videotaping have revolutionized not only what we see but also when and how we see it—remote controls, Tivos, and general zipping and zapping of ads and programs. The potential for great sports viewing, and for learning about new sports and other countries’ sports, is outstanding—but will we settle for the same old/same old? Will we ask more from our sports, and from our sportscasters? Chapter 3 The Economics of Sports, Sportscasters, and Sportscasting Exercise 3. 1: Sports Tourism As one of the fastest-growing niche markets in the more than $500 billion tourism industry, sports tourism encourages us to participate directly, such as on ski trips, at golf or tennis camps, on theme cruises, or as spectators for events such as the Olympic Games, Super Bowl, World Cup, and the like. Tell about your own experience in sports tourism. You might want to refer to some of these books: Brabazon, Tara (2006). Playing on the periphery: Sport, identity and memory. London: Routledge. Gibson, Heather (2006). Sport tourism. New York: Routledge. Higham, James (2004). Sport tourism destinations: Issues, opportunities and analysis. Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. Hinch, Thomas and James E. S. Higham (2004). Sport tourism development. Clevedon, UK: Channel View Books. Hudson, Simon (Ed. ) (2002). Sport and adventure tourism. Binghamton, NY: The Haworth Press. Ritchie, Brent W. and Daryl Adair (Eds. ) (2004). Sport tourism: Interrelationships, impacts and issues. Oxon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Robinson, Tom (2004). Sports tourism: An introduction. Boston, MA: Thomson Learning. Robinson, Tom, Sean Gammon, and Ian Jones (2003). Sports tourism: An Introduction. London: Continuum. Rowe, David and Geoffrey Laurence (Eds. ) (2000). Tourism, leisure, sport, and critical perspectives. Cambridge University Press. Ryan, Chris (2003). Recreational tourism: Demand and impacts. Celevedon, UK: Channel View Publications. 19 20 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING Scarrott, Martin (Ed. ) (1999). Sport, leisure and tourism information sources: A guide for researchers. Butterworth-Heinemann. Standeven, Joy and Paul DeKnop (1999). Sport tourism. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Turco, Douglas Michele, Roger S. Riley, Kamilla Swart (2002). Sport tourism. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Van Der Wagen, Lynn (2002). Event management: For tourism, cultural, business, and sporting events. Prentice-Hall. Weed, Mike and Chris Bull (2003). Sports tourism: Participants, policy and providers. Burlington, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. Exercise 3. 2: The Economics of Sports (book review) From the bibliography, choose a book and critique it, including the following information: 1. The book: full name of the title, author(s) name, when and where published and by whom, number of pages and illustrations. 2. Author(s): who she or he is—profession, background, experience, and other publications. 3. Frame of reference: the writer’s point of view, or bias. Do you think he or she is qualified to write about this subject? Is the book based on personal experience? 4. Thesis: what is the main point here? Why do you think this book was written? Read the preface and the book jacket, if applicable. Give a brief description of the book in terms of its thesis, and give your opinion on how well it is supported. 5. Evidence: what kinds of arguments does the author use, and how successfully? Do you think the facts are valid? Are the conclusions under- or overstated, and how do they stand up? 6. Contribution to knowledge: what does this book add to both your education and that of others who might read it? Who might like to read this book? 7. Your evaluation of the book: was it well written? Well organized? Would you read more books by this author? 8. Overall personal reaction: was reading this book and writing this book report a worthwhile experience for you? Did you discuss this book with anyone? Instructor’s Manual. Bibliography on General Sports Economics 21 Andrews, David L. (Ed. ) (2001). Michael Jordon, Inc: Corporate sport, media culture, and late modern America. Albany: State University of NY Press. Andrews, David L. (2006). Sport-commerce-culture: Essays on sport in late capitalist America. New York: Peter Lang. Aris, Stephen (1990). Sportsbiz: Inside the sports business. London: Hutchinson. Fizel, John, Elizabeth Gustafson, and Lawrence Hadley (Eds. ) (1999). Sports economics: Current research. Westport, CT: Praeger. Goff, Brian L. and Robert D. Tollison (eds. ) (1990). Sportometrics. College Station, TX: Texas A&M UP. Gorman, Jerry and Kirk Calhoun (1994). The name of the game: The business of sports. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Graham, Peter J. (Ed. ) (1994). Sport business: Operational and theoretical aspects. Madison, WI: WCB Brown & Benchmark. Hofmann, Dale and Martin J. Greenberg (1989). Sports$biz: An irreverent look at Big Business in pro sports. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Klatell, David A. and Norman Marcus (1988). Sports for sale: Television, money, and the fans. New York: Oxford. Rosentraub, Mark S. (1997). Major League losers: The real cost of sports and who’s paying for it. New York: Basic Books. Sheehan, Richard G.( 1996). Keeping score: The economics of Big-Time sports. South Bend, IN: Diamond Communication. Staudohar, Paul D. and James A. Mangan (Eds. ) (1991). The business of professional sports. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Walsh, Adrian (2006). Ethics, money & sport: This sporting mammon. New York: Routledge. Weiss, Ann E. (1993). Money games: The business of sports. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Bibliography on Law/Legal Issues Berry, Robert C. and Glenn M. Wong (1993). Law and business of the sports industries: Common issues in amateur and professional sports. Westport, CT: Praeger. Champion, Walter T. , Jr.(1993). Sports law in a nutshell. St. Paul, MN: West Pub. Cotton, Doyice J. and T. Jesse Wilde (1997). Sport law for sport managers. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt. Cozzillio, Michael J. and Mark S. Levinstein (1997). Sports law: Cases and materials. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. Dougherty, Neil J. (1994). Sport, physical activity, and the law. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Fotiades, John M. (1989). You’re the judge: How to understand sports, torts & courts. Worcester, MA: Edgeworth and North Books. 22 EXERCISES IN SPORTSCASTING Greenberg, Martin J. (1993). Sports law practice. Charlottesville, VA: Michie Co. Greenfield, Steve and Guy Osborn (Eds. ) (2000). Law and sport in Contemporary society. London: Frank Cass. Hladczuk, John (Comp. ) (1991). Sports law and legislation: An annotated bibliography. New York: Greenwood Press. Jarvis, Robert M. and Phyllis Coleman (1999). Sports law: Cases and materials. St. Paul, MN: West Group. Jones, Michael E. (1999). Sports law. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Lowe, Stephen R. (1995). The kid on the sandlot: Congress and professional sports, 1910-1922. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. O’Leary, John (Ed. ) (2001). Drugs and doping in sport: Socio-legal perspectives. London: Cavendish. Quirk, Charles (Ed. ) (1996). Sports and the law: Major legal cases. New York: Garland. Shropshire, Kenneth L. (1990). Agents of opportunity: Sports agents and corruption in collegiate sports. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Tokarz, Karen (1986). Women, sports, and the law: A comprehensive research guide to sex discrimination in sports. Buffalo, NY: W. S. Hein. Weiler, Paul C. (2000). Leveling the playing field: How the law can makes Sports better for the fans. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP. Weiler, Paul C. and Gary R. Roberts (1993). Cases, materials and problems on sports and the law. St. Paul, MN: West Pub. Wong, Glenn M. (1994). Essentials of amateur sports law. Westport, CT: Praeger. Wong, Glenn M. and T. Jesse Wilde (1994). The sport lawyer’s guide to legal periodicals: An annotated bibliography. Buffalo, NY: W. S. Hein. Yasser, Raymond L. (1985) Torts and sports: Legal liability in professional and amateur athletics. Westport, CT: Quorum Books. Yasser, Ray, James R. McCurdy, and C. Peter Goplerud (1990). Sports law: Cases and materials. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson. Bibliography on Sports Marketing/Management Brooks, Christine M. (1994). Sports marketing: Competitive business strategies for sports. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Cuneen, Jacquelyn and M. Joy Sidwell (1994). Sport management Field experiences. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. DeSensi, Joy T. and Danny Rosenberg (1996). Ethics in sports management. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Graham, Stedman, Joe Jeff Goldblatt, and Lisa Delphy Neirotti (2001). The ultimate guide to sports marketing. New York: McGraw-Hill. Howard, Dennis R. and John L. Crampton (1995). Financing sport. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Jones, Ian (2003). Research methods for sports studies. New York: Routledge. Instructor’s Manual 23 Masteralexis, Lida Pike, Carol A. Barr, and Mary A. Hums (Eds. ) (2004). Principles and practices of sports management. 2nd ed. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen. McDonald, Mark A. and George R. Milne (1999). Cases in sports marketing. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett. Miller, Lorik (1997). Sport business management. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen. Milne, George R. and Mark A. McDonald (1999). Sports management: Managing the exchange process. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett. Mullin, Bernard J. , Stephen Hardy, and William A. Sutton (1993). Sport marketing. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.